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4 Qualitative Investigation of the Effect of 

Mode of Presentation upon the 

Process of Learning 



BY 
FRANCIS J. O'BRIEN 



A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Clark University, 
Worcester, Mass., in partial fulfilment of the requirements 
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and accepted on 
the recommendation of John Wallace Baird. 



Reprinted from The American Journal of Psychology 
April, 1921, Vol. XXXII, pp. 249-283 



A Qualitative Investigation of the Effect of 

Mode of Presentation upon the 

Process of Learning 



BY 
FRANCIS J. O'BRIEN 



A Dissertation submitted to the Facultyot Clark University, 
Worcester, Mass., in partial tulfilment of the requirements 
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and accepted on 
the recommendation of John Wallace Baird. 



Reprinted from The American Journal of Psychology 
April, 1921, Vol. XXXII, pp. 249-283 



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A QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT 

OF MODE OF PRESENTATION UPON THE 

PROCESS OF LEARNING 



By Francis J. O'Brien^ 



Contents 

Page 

History 249 

Materials, Apparatus, Procedure and Observers 252 

Significant materials 252 

Non-significant materials 254 

Ideational equipment of observers 254 

Results 256 

Summary of introspections 256 

The process of learning. 269 

Objective data 278 

Summary and Conclusions 281 

History 

The relation of the mode of presentation of a material to 
the process of learning it has been approached experimentally 
from various points of view. Most investigators have sought, 
with a pedagogical interest, simply to determine the mode of 
presentation most advantageous in learning; a few have con- 
cerned themselves chiefly with the psychological aspects of 
the problem and undertaken to determine the qualitative 
changes in the complete mental process that arise when the 
material to be learned is presented to dififerent senses. Our 
present problem is psychological in this latter sense. In most 
studies investigators have been content to deal merely with 
the quantitative aspects of learning and recall, supplementing 
such data only occasionally by introspections. They have 
made the analysis of the learning-process almost entirely with 
reference to the mode of presentation of the material — whether 
it is visually or auditorially presented, or reinforced by voci- 
motor repetition, for example — and little with respect to the 
actual sensory terms with which the learner represents the 
material to himself. For this latter information, as well as 
for a complete understanding of the problem, an introspective 
study is essential. 

1 From the Psychological Laboratory of Clark University. This 
work was performed under the direction of Professor J. W. Baird. 

249 



250 O'BRIEN 

Miinsterberg and Bigham- published the pioneer investigation in this 
field in 1894. They presented digits and colors to their observers in 
visual, in auditory, and in combined visual-auditory fashion, and 
tested the learning immediately by a method of reconstruction. They 
concluded that visual memory is superior to auditory and that material 
presented to both these senses at the same time is more easily repro- 
duced than material presented only to the one or the other. 

Cohn^ took especial account of the motor factor in learning. Using 
lists of consonants as material, he compared learning with emphasis 
upon the vocimotor processes with learning with vocimotor processes 
inhibited. He sought to secure this inhibition by having the O press 
his tongue against the roof of his mouth, count " 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3," etc., 
count backwards, or count by 2's or 3's. He concluded that learning 
was better when there was no attempt to interfere with vocimotor 
processes. It is possible, however, that his results were due to the 
distraction of attention by the inhibiting task. 

Quantz,' in a study of the psychology of reading, performed memory 
experiments with visual-vocimotor, auditory, and visual-auditory-voci- 
motor modes of presentation. He concluded that lip movement is a 
serious hindrance to the speed of reading and that a combination of 
the visual and auditory modes of presentation has little advantage 
for recall over either mode of presentatoin separately. 

Lay^ studied the mode of presentation most effective in learning 
spelling, and demonstrated that visual presentation is much more 
effective than auditory and that the introduction of motor imagery 
is of considerable assistance in the learning processes. Fuchs and 
Haggenmiiller" and Itschner'^ repeated Lay's experiments with certain 
variations and in general substantiated his findings. 

SmedleyS investigated the memory span of children for five different 
modes of presentation. He found that he obtained the greatest span 
with the visual-auditory-vocimotor mode, and that his other modes 
could not be completely realized because his subjects were unable en- 
tirely to repress their vocimotor processes. 

Finzi" worked upon observational noting and retention as condi- 
tioned upon presentative modes. He worked without consideration 
of the imaginal types of his O's, but concluded that vocimotor and 
manumotor imagery are least efficient for retention. Some of his O's, 

~ Miinsterberg, H., and Bigham, J. Memory. Psychol. Rev., 1, 
1894, 34-38. 

3 Cohn, J. Experimentelle Untersuchungen fiber das Zusammen- 
wirken des akustisch-motorischen und des visuellen Gedachtnisses. 
Zsch. f. Psychol, 15, 1897, 161-183. 

* Quantz, J. O. Problems in the psychology of reading. Psychol. 
Rev. Mon. Sup., 2, No. 1, 1897, 51 pp. 

5 Lay, W. A. Experimentelle Didaktik. 3 ed., 1910, xvi-|-661 pp. 

<' Fuchs, H., and Haggenmiiller, A. Studien und Versuche fiber die 
Erlernung der Orthographic. Sammliing von Abhandlungen aus dent 
Gchictc der pddagogischen Psychologic und Physiologic, II, 1898, 63. pp. 

^ Itschner, H. Lay's Rechtschreib-Reform. H. Jahrhuch d. Vcrcins 
f. zvisscnschaft. Pad., 32, 1900, 206-234. 

■^ Smedley, F. W. Report of the department of child study and 
pedagogic investigation. Chicago, No. 3, 1900-01, 63 pp. 

9 Finzi, J. Zur Untersuchung der Auffassungsfahigkeit und Merk- 
fahigkeit. Psychol. Arbeit., 3, 1900, 289-384, 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 251 

however, remembered best when motor processes were introduced in 
addition to the others in the learning. 

Kemsies,!*' in a study of school children, concluded that visual pres- 
entation was more advantageous than auditory for learning German- 
Latin vocabularies. Frankl^i studied the same problem with more 
modes of presentation and concluded that Kemsies' conclusion holds 
for learners of the visual type but that auditory presentation is more 
efficient for learners of the auditory type. Schuyten,!^ on the basis 
of a similar experiment, concluded that ' pure auditory ' presentation 
is superior to ' visual plus auditory ' presentation. His ' pure auditory ' 
presentation was, however, presumably auditory-vocimotor, and his 
experiment was made without reference to the imaginal type of the 
school children. 

A more thorough investigation of this problem is Pohlmann's.^^ 
He worked with six modes of presentation and three intervals of 
recall. His general conclusions are that auditory presentation is 
slightly more advantageous than visual for such familiar material 
as meaningful words, that visual presentation is superior to auditory 
for nonsense syllables, and that retention is not improved by the 
addition of the auditory mode or the vocimotor mode of presentation 
to the visual. 

SegaU* worked with trained O's and with visual and auditory 
presentation. In both cases he allowed the learner in certain series 
to use the visual-auditory mode with any imaginal supplementation 
that he desired, while in other series he required him to avoid voci- 
motor processes by carrying on simultaneously with the visual or 
auditory presentation some other irrelevant vocimotor process. He 
concluded that the same individual may be said to belong to different 
imaginal types when reproducing different materials, that optimal 
conditions for reproduction consist of the presentation of the material 
in the mode that corresponds to the O's type, and that, when presen- 
tation is made in a mode different from the O's type, the O either 
may learn less efficiently using the terms in which presentation is 
made or may immediately transpose the presented material into 
imagery corresponding to his type. The necessity for taking strict 
account of the O's type under the particular experimental conditions 
and the need for a persistent appeal to introspection become apparent 
in this study. 

Von Sybeli-'' reinforced Segal's conclusion by an experiment in- 
volving six presentative modes. He noted especially that the imaginal 
type of the learners had to be considered before the most effective 

If* Kemsies, F. Gedachtnisuntersuchungen an Schulkindern. Zsch. 
f. pad. Psychol, 2, 1900, 21-30; 3, 1901, 171-183. 

11 Franki, E. Ueber V orstellungs-Ekmente und Atifmerksamkeit. 
Ein Beitrag zur experimentellcn Psychologic. 1905, 256 pp. 

12 Schuyten, M. C. Experimentelles zum Studium der gebrauch- 
lichsten Methoden im fremdsprachlichen Unterricht. Exper Pad 
1906, 3, 199-211. 

13 Pohlmann, A. Expcrimentclle Beitrdge ztir Lchre voin Geddchtnis 
1906, 191 pp. 

!■* Segal, J. Ueber den Reproduktionstypus und das Reproduzieren 
von Vorstellungen. Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol, 1908, 12, 124-236. 

15 Sybel, A. von. Ueber das Zusammenwirken verschiedener Sinn- 
esgebiete bei Gedachtnisleistungen. Zsch. f. Psychol, 53, 1909, 257- 
360. 



252 O'BRIEN 

mode of learning could be established, and that imaginal type is not 
fixed, but subject to change under different conditions. 

Abbott!*^ studied the nature of the mental processes involved in 
learning to spell unfamiliar English words. Her work was under- 
taken in order to test the results of Lay, Fuchs and Haggenmiiller, 
and Itschner. She found, under her conditions, that the initial recall 
came typically as visual imagery of the letters of the word no matter 
what the mode of presentation, that the subject would proceed to 
pronounce the word only as soon as a clear visual image was obtained, 
that auditory presentation gave rise, by way of visual imagery, to an 
even more purely visual learning than did visual presentation, and 
that the mode of presentation appears, therefore, to determine the 
imaginal terms of the learning in only a small degree. 

Meumann'si^ conclusions support the general trend of the fore- 
going experiments : it is more advantageous for a learner to use 
imagery corresponding to his imaginal type than for him to attempt 
the use of imagery in other modalities. Meumann holds that learning 
is dependent more upon the formation of strong associations than 
upon the formation of many associations and that therefore the 
material which is most readily impressed should be used. Frank- 
further and Thiele^* also came to this same conclusion, although they 
noted especially that the addition of other modes to the natural mode 
for the O increased efficiency of learning. For them the best results 
were obtained with visual-auditory-vocimotor learning. 

Materials, Apparatus, Procedure and Observers 

In the first half of the investiagtion we used significant 
words ; in the second half, nonsense-syllables. 

Significant Materials 

This material consisted of four-letter English words, — 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, — which were 
arranged in 36 lists of 20 words each of approximately equal 
difficulty. The lists were divided into three series, a, h, and 
c, of 12 lists each. 

Twelve modes of presentation were employed and in the 
order given below. The following symbols are used in this 
paper in abbreviation of the names of the modes of presen- 
tation : V=visual, A=auditory, Al=vocimotor, m=manu- 
motor. 

1. Auditory (A). E pronounced the words, one every 3 
sec, to the beat of a metronome. The learner w^as asked to 
inhibit vocimotor imagery during the learning. 

18 Abbott, E. E. On the analysis of the factor of recall in the 
learning process. Psychol. Mono., 11, 1909, 159-177. 

1^ Meumann, E. Vorlcsungcn zur Einfiihrung in die cxperimentelle 
Pddagogik iind ihrc psychologischcn Grundlagcn, II. 1907, vii4-467pp. 

^*^ Frankfurther, W., and Thiele, R. Ueber den Zusammenhang 
zwischen Vostellungstypus und sensorischer Lernweise. Zsch. f. 
Psychol., 62, 1912, 96-131. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 253 

2. Anditory-vocimotor (AM). The same procedure as in 
the purely auditory presentation (A), except that the learner 
was allowed the use of vocimotor imagery. 

3. Visual (V). The series as they were presented visually 
on an exposure apparatus, one word every 3 sec. The learner 
was asked to inhibit vocimotor imagery. 

4. Visual-vocimotor-auditory (VAM). The words were 
presented to the learner as in the purely visual presentation 
(V), and as soon as he perceived each word he was required 
to pronounce it aloud, definitely and distinctly. 

5. Auditory-mamimotor (Am). The same procedure as in 
the purely auditory presentation (A), except that the learner 
was required in addition to write the words. The learner 
was blindfolded, so that he could not see the word he had 
written. 

6. Visual-auditory-manunwtor (VAm). The procedure 
here is a combination of the purely visual (V) and the audi- 
tory-manumotor (Am) modes of presentation, except that the 
learner was not blindfolded. (See 7, VMm below.) 

7. Visual-vocunotor-manumotor (VMm). The learner saw 
the word and was permitted to repeat it in vocimotor imagery 
but not aloud ; and then wrote it. The O's hand was under 
a screen, so that he could not see the word that he had written. 

8. Visual-auditory (VA). The learner saw the word, and 
at the same time heard it pronounced by E. He was required 
to inhibit vocimotor imagery in the learning. 

9. Visual-vocimotor (VM). The learner saw the word and 
was allowed to repeat it in vocimotor imagery but not aloud. 

10. Auditory-vociniotor-juanuuwtor (AMm). The proced- 
ure is the same as in the auditory-manumotor mode of pres- 
entation (Am), except that the learner was allowed the use 
of vocimotor imagery. 

11. Visual-manutnotor (Vm). The procedure is the same 
as in the visual-vocimotor-manumotor mode of presentation 
(VMm), except that the learner was asked not to employ 
vocimotor imagery in the learning. 

12. Visiial-auditory-vociiuotor-niamimotor (VAMm). The 
learner saw the word as it appeared in the aperture, pronounced 
it aloud definitely and distinctly, and then wrote it ; he did not 
perceive visually the word that he had written. 

In the visual presentation the list of words was type- 
written on paper fastened to a revolving drum which pre- 



254 o'brien 

sented one word every 3 sec. A space indicated the end of 
the Hst. 

In the auditory presentation a 3-sec. interval was allowed 
at the end of the list before repetition of the list. 

A list was re-presented until the O signalled that he had 
learned it. The O would then immediately recall the series 
to E, who would record the recall, the number of presenta- 
tions required for learning, the time required for recall, and 
the number and the nature of the errors made. 

We sought in this investigation both a quantitative deter- 
mination of reproduction after a few seconds and after 24 
hours, and an introspective account of the mental procedure 
in the learning and in both the immediate and delayed recalls. 
Thus we hoped to obtain a clearer insight into the act of 
learning itself, and to clear up some of the differences of 
experimental results that are to be found in the literature. 

Seven graduate students in experimental psychology served 
as O's. They were all highly trained in introspection. Four 
of them took part in the entire investigation. 

Non-significant Materials 

In the second half of the investigation we used 33 lists of 
nonsense-syllables. Twenty syllables constituted a list. The 
procedure was identical with the procedure of the first part 
with two exceptions. In the first place, the visual-auditory- 
manumotor presentation (VAm) was not employed because 
the learner's procedure was almost the same as with the visual- 
auditory-vocimotor-manumotor presentation (VAMm). In 
the second place, the O could see the word as he wrote it. 
An apparatus was arranged so that the syllable written by 
the learner was drawn out of sigh simultaneously with the 
coming-in of the new syllable. We employed for this pur- 
pose an endless band of paper which passed under an aperture 
cut in the table and was actuated by electrical contacts con- 
trolled by the exposure apparatus, a Marx machine. Thus 
we prevented continued visual stimulation. 

Ideational Equipment of Observers 

Observer P. P was of mixed type, with preference for 
vocimotor imagery, but he was able to use visual imagery 
readily. When vocimotor imagery was prohibited by the in- 
structions, he reported that it was nevertheless present in 
most of the learning process, although under certain condi- 
tions it could be inhibited. His recalls were always in voci- 
motor imagery. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 255 

Observer C. C was of the mixed type, but dominantly 
visual. He used vocimotor-auditory imagery, especially when 
the material was difficult. In anticipating and recalling, he 
relied mostly on visual imagery, both of the printed word and 
in his own handwriting. C also employed a visual schema 
of the list of words frequently in learning and always in 
recall. 

Observer Fe. Fe was of extreme motor type; in the entire 
investigation he reported only one or two visual images and 
these were subsequent upon vocimotor imagery. In no instance 
was he able to inhibit vocimotor imagery. He always recalled 
the material by means of vocimotor-auditory imagery or by 
vocimotor innervation. Frequently he employed a kinaesthetic 
schema of localization. 

Observer T. T was of the mixed type, but preferred voci- 
motor imagery. He possessed, nevertheless, a good command 
of visual imagery and recalled many words in visual-verbal 
terms. When instructed to inhibit vocimotor imagery, he never 
succeeded ; and he always anticipated the material in voci- 
motor terms. In cases of difficulty of recall, he employed 
either a visual or a kinaesthetic schema of localization. All 
the recalls, regardless of the mode of presentation, occurred 
mostly in vocimotor and vocimotor-auditory terms, accom- 
panied often by visual-verbal or visual-concrete imagery or 
meaningful associations. 

Observer Fi. Fi was of the balanced type ; she habitually 
employed vocimotor (auditory) imagery alone in learning but 
she sometimes used visual imagery alone, especially under the 
Aufgabe to inhibit vocimotor processes. In these latter cases, 
however, the vocimotor processes were present during the first 
few presentations. She formed many meaningful associations 
during the learning. The syllables were generally recalled 
in vocimotor (auditory) . imagery ; but visual imagery was 
present in a few of the immediate recalls. She also employed 
a visual schema of localization. One olfactory image was 
reported by Fi, the only such image reported in the inves- 
tigation. 

Observer W. W was of the extreme visual type and in 
learning and recalling he employed a greater amount of visual 
imagery than of any other kind. He used vocimotor and 
vocimotor-auditory imagery to no great extent. Even when 
permitted vocimotor imagery, he employed it only in the first 
few presentations. He also employed a visual schema of 



256 O'BRIEN 

localization. He found it impossible to inhibit vocimotor 
imagery in the first few presentations of a new material. 

Observer S. S was of the mixed type with a slight prefer- 
ence for the vocimotor imagery. He was able to use visual 
imagery in learning, but it appeared only after the vocimotor 
imagery had been present in the first few presentations. In 
spite of the use of several contrivances, he found it impossible 
to inhibit vocimotor imagery under instruction. He employed 
a visual schema of localization. 

Results 
Summary of Introspections'^^ 

A survey of our introspections brings to light the following 
points : 

I. Vocimotor imagery can not be inhibited, at least not in 
the first part of the learning. 

P, VA. " During the presentation I focused attention on your voice, 
adjusting my right ear toward you and holding the auditory stimulus 
as long as possible ; I attempted to anticipate, but when I succeeded 
the words always appeared in vocimotor imagery." 

T, V. " In the fore-period there were sensations of pressing my 
lips together, pressing the tongue against the teeth, kinaesthesis of 
strains in the muscles of the stomach, and general muscular inhibitions 
throughout the whole body. This tense state seemed to be an attempt 
to inhibit vocimotor imagery ; but in spite of it all the first presen- 
tation of each syllable was followed by a vocimotor-auditory repeti- 
tion of it." 

C, A. " In the first part of the learning I found that if I attended 
focally to the perception of each word and then to auditory imagery 
of it afterwards, I could not help having vocimotor imagery of it; 
so in the first 5 presentations at least I had rapid vocimotor imagery 
of each syllable after it was presented." 

IV, VA. "As soon as the first word was presented I found myself 
repeating it in vocimotor imagery, then awareness of the Aufgabe, 
present in visual imagery of you. . . . When the next word was 
presented I found myself repeating it again in vocimotor imagery." 

Ft, A. " In general I would repeat the syllable and the associated 
word in vocimotor-auditory imagery, and at the same time I was 
keenly aware of tensions about my tongue and throat, tensions which 
would increase at that moment. In some cases the vocimotor image 
was very slight." 

S, VA. "As soon as you said, ' Inhibit vocimotor imagery,' I was 
conscious of a numb feeling in the vocal apparatus. In the first 
presentation I was aware of a vocimotor image of the word as soon 
as I received the visual percept. . . . This vocimotor image after 

18 In the following excerpts from the protocols, the letter at the 
beginning of the paragraph indicates the O, and the symbol following 
the mode of presentation : see p. 252. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 257 

the presentation of each word was present, I am certain, during the 
entire first presentation and. occurred very many times during the 
second presentation." 

II. Observers of motor type never wholly succeed in elim- 
inating vocimotor imagery in the learning, even when instructed 
to do so. 

T, Am. "After the presentation of each syllable I had vocimotor 
and auditory repetition of it throughout the whole learning; I pre- 
vented movement of lips and actual throat movement, but I could not 
repress a sensation of movement in the tongue, and auditory imagery 
often accompanied this vocimotor imagery." 

Fe was never able to inhibit vocimotor imagery ; it was present in 
all the learning with all materials. 

III. With O's of visual type, the words are anticipated in 
vocimotor imagery ; gradually the words appear to conscious- 
ness more and more in visual and less and less in vocimotor 
imagery ; finally the words are anticipated in visual imagery 
only and no vocimotor imagery of the words is present. 

C, V. " In the first part of the learning I was unable to rule out 
vocimotor-auditory imagery ; it immediately followed the visual per- 
ception of the word. But as the learning went on the amount of 
vocimotor imagery became less and less. In the last 6 or 7 presen- 
tations there was almost no vocimotor-auditory imagery ; the words 
were anticipated almost wholly by means of visual imagery." 

W, VAm. " Vocimotor imagery appeared very seldom after the 
first 3 or 4 presentations, the anticipation being done mostly in visual 
imagery." 

IV. If O's of visual type attempt to inhibit vocimotor imag- 
ery, visual imagery in the learning sometimes becomes less 
clear ; in the recalls the visual image develops more slowly 
than it does when vocimotor imagery is not interfered with. 

C, A. Delayed Recall. "All the syllables came in visual imagery 
but very slowly and in no definite order. . . . Only 4 or 5 of the 
syllables were definitely localized. Strains in my eyes and conscious- 
ness that the words were coming very slowly." 

W, AMm. " None of the visual imagery was very clear. Accom- 
panying the learning were great strains and unpleasantness ; I could 
not give the words fast because they came in so slowly." 

W, Am. W gave up his attempt to learn the series after it was 
presented to him 18 times ; he said, " I could not learn this series 
because I was unable to visualize the words as this is the medium I 
use in learning." 

V. In addition to the help obtained from meaningful asso- 
ciations, there is another aid which comes from the vocaliza- 
tion of the words and which we may call a ' motor or kinaes- 
thetic help ' : on pronouncing the first word the O may find his 
vocal apparatus set to pronounce the following word. 



258 O'BRIEN 

T, VM. Delayed Recall. " The syllables before SEC came in very 
quickly, one after the other, in vocimotor imagery; that is, after pro- 
nouncing one word I would find my vocal apparatus set to pronounce 
the next, and this word was then immediately vocalized. As soon 
as I vocalized VIT I found my vocal apparatus about to pronounce 
CAY." 

C, V. "As soon as I recalled POM I was conscious of eye-move- 
ment downward, and vocimotor and auditory imagery of POM; before 
I finished vocalizing POM the vocal apparatus was adjusted for the 
pronunciation of TER, and POM-TER were pronounced very quickly, 
one after the other." 

Fe, A. Delayed Recall. " The vocal apparatus was set for the 
pronunciation of a hard c-sound. Then I found myself pronouncing 
COCO." 

Fi, VAM. Delayed Recall. " WAB flashed in mechanically in 
vocimotor innervation ; after the vocalization of VOQ (which imme- 
diately preceded WAB) my vocal apparatus formed for the vocaliza- 
tion of WAB." 

S, Am. Delayed Recall. "After vocalizing TALL I was conscious 
of the adjustment of the vocal organs for the iV<?-sound ; this was 
followed by a visual image of FIVE in my own hand-writing." 

VI. If given the Aufgahc to inhibit vocimotor imagery, the 

sometimes sets up for himself a new Aufgabe to use imagery 
of another modality. 

P, VA. " I tried to anticipate, but when I did I used vocimotor 
imagery, so I stopped anticipating ; then I set up the vocimotor-audi- 
tory Aufgabe to retain the words in visual concrete images." 

T, VA. " I tried to anticipate, but I found myself using vocimotor 
imagery. ... I set up the vocimotor and auditory Aufgabe to 
anticipate in visual imagery but I did not succeed ; vocimotor imagery 
always coming in." 

C, VA. " There was little tendency to use vocimotor imagery after 
the presentation of each word; I set up the vocimotor-auditory Auf- 
gabe to anticipate in visual imagery; I just sat and looked as the 
words were being presented, attending very little to the auditory 
presentation." 

W, VA. " I then found myself seeking for a way to fulfil the 
Aufgabe [to inhibit vocimotor imagery] ; I had a visual image of a 
sheet of paper and myself; then a vocimotor and auditory, 'Attend 
to the visual image of the words ; never mind the vocimotor image.' " 

S, A. " I was using vocimotor imagery in learning these words ; 

1 then set up the vocimotor-auditory Aufgabe to substitute the exhaled 
breath for the vocalization of the word; the vocimotor imagery became 
less, and I had a second Aufgabe to use visual imagery after you 
spoke the word." 

S, Am. " I set up the vocimotor-auditory Aufgabe to visualize 
the words in my own hand-writing ; this I did, but I was not able 
to anticipate in this visual imagery." 

VII. Any attempt to inhibit vocimotor imagery makes audi- 
tory imagery of the word more clear and intensive. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 259 

T, Vm. " Following the visual percept of the word there was a 
vocimotor-auditory image of it. The vocimotor image was much less 
intensive than the auditory. The auditory image of the word became 
much more intensive as I was able to suppress the vocimotor." 

C, Vm. " Later on in the learning the vocimotor seemed to drop 
out and the auditory image seemed much louder ; the vocimotor image 
almost completely dropped out in the last half of the learning." 

Fi, VA. " I am quite sure that I inhibited vocimotor innervation 
of each word, but there was slight vocimotor imagery and very in- 
tensive auditory imagery." 

VIII. In a visual-auditory presentation an O seldom attends 
to both the visual and the auditory stimuli ; he attends either 
to the visual alone or to the auditory alone. 

P, VAm. " During the presentation of the words I paid the least 
possible attention to your pronouncing . . . concentrating atten- 
tion almost wholly upon the visual perception." 

C, VA. " During the middle of the series I was not attending to 
your voice at all but to my own anticipatory processes and to my 
retaining, in visual imagery, of the last two words which I had just 
perceived visually." 

Fe, VA. " My attention was directed much more to the auditory 
perception than to the visual perception of the word; in fact, once 
or twice I found that my eyes were actually closed, while I was per- 
ceiving the words in auditory fashion only." 

W, VAm. " For 4 or 5 presentations I paid little attention to your 
voice ; it was by no means in focal perception for at least 4 or 5 
presentations ; I attended mostly to the visual perception." 

IX. In an auditory presentation all O's had great difficulty 
in distinguishing syllables containing such letters as d, t, q, 
c, k, etc. 

T, Am. "After you pronounced QAZ I wrote it KAZ; the k held 
my attention. Vocimotor-auditory imagery, ' That must be a g be- 
cause there is a ^ later.' " T had to reason, therefore, as to the 
correct spelling of a syllable ; the auditory perception made possible 
at least two spellings. 

C, AMm. " During the first few presentations the auditory per- 
ception was not instantaneous ; not definite or clear ; that is, not so 
much the clearness of the sound but rather a lack of definiteness of 
the letters pronounced. For example, for one syllable I write it at 
least two ways : BER and BUR." 

Fe, AMm. " In the first presentation several words presented were 
capable of two interpretations ; e.g., BARN-BARM. This caused 
nervousness." 

W, A. " I had great difficulty with the syllables containing either 
the letters c and q, d and b; after perceiving a syllable containing 
such a letter there was confusion as to what the exact spelling was ; 
this confusion consisted mostly in a fluctuation of the two possi- 
bilities in visual imagery." 

Fi, AMm. "Sometimes I had difficulty in perceiving the word defi- 
nitely; I would find my vocal apparatus set to pronounce but for no 



260 O'BRIEN 

definite syllable ; this setting of the vocal apparatus only appeared 
when I was not able definitely to perceive a syllable. 

S, AM. " In 3 cases it was very difficult for me to get a distinct 
perception of the words, and I was not able to vocalize them easily; 
there were elements in my auditory perception of your voice in pro- 
nouncing the words which I was unable to reproduce." 

X. If, in recalling a series which had been presented to the 

in auditory fashion, auditory imagery is present, it is seldom 
of E's but usually of O's voice. 

C, AMm. " The words were recalled in vocimotor-auditory imagery 
of my own voice; then a visual image of each word in my own hand- 
writing." 

Fe, A. " In the immediate recall I made use, as far as I am aware, 
only of vocimotor-auditory imagery ; the auditory imagery was of my 
own voice." 

W, AMm. Delayed Recall. (What was the nature of your audi- 
tory imagery? Was it of your voice or of my voice, or of any one 
else's voice?) "The auditory imagery when it appeared was always 
of my voice." 

Fi, A. " I anticipated every syllable in auditory imagery of my 
own voice, perhaps a little vocimotor, sometimes 2 or 3 ahead of the 
actual presentation." 

S, VA. Delayed Recall. " I gave the first 3 words from visual 
imagery, but the word SOIL (the second word of the three) was fol- 
lowed by auditory imagery of my own voice." 

XL Manumotor imagery does not help either in learning 
or in recalling a list of words or nonsense-syllables. 

P, VAm. (Did any manumotor imagery appear in the learning or 
the recalling of this series?) " I had absolutely no manumotor imagery 
at all." 

T, Am. " The immediate recall of this scries was almost wholly 
in vocimotor-auditory imagery, the auditory being of my own voice ; 
there were no visual and no manumotor imagery present." 

C, Am. " I anticipated far ahead of the drum, not attending to 
your pronunciation until I failed to anticipate ; there was no con- 
sciousness of any manumotor imagery whatever." 

Fe, Vm. (Did any manumotor imagery enter into the learning or 
the recall of this series.) " No, none at all." 

W, VAm. " In anticipating I always set up the Aufgabe to call 
up the words visually; if a visual image of the word failed to appear 

1 attended to my arm; but no manumotor image of a syllable ever 
appeared." 

Fi, Vm. Delayed Recall. " There was no consciousness of any 
manumotor imagery ; in fact, there was no consciousness that I ever 
wrote the material." 

S, Am. " Before I wrote a word I was never conscious of either 
a visual or a manumotor image of it." 

XII. In recalling words between which associations have 
been established in the learning, the imagery of these words 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 261 

may appear very quickly, and the association is present only 
inasmuch as the words appear more quickly. 

P, AMm. " The first word of an associated group would appear 
and the remaining words would come more readily with very little 
attention, one after the other." 

T, AM. "All the syllables came very quickly, one after the other, 
but there was no consciousness of their meaningful connection; there 
seemed to be no meaning attached to the words excepting the fact 
that they came very quickly." 

C, VA. Delayed Recall. " There was no visual concrete imagery 
with the word NUNS ; i.e., the visual concrete imagery that appeared 
to consciousness during the learning process ; but as a result of the 
association made with NUNS and CAPE, the word CAPE came more 
quickly in auditory imagery after the word NUNS, than was the case 
where two succeeding words in the series were not associated." 

Fe, Vm. Delayed Recall. " The meanings were present in the 
words with which associations had been formed in the learning, as 
far as I can see, only inasmuch as these words came together." 

W , VMm. Delayed Recall. " The meaning which was present in 
the learning of the groups was not clearly present, the effect being 
that these words appeared very quickly, one after the other." 

Fi, VA. Delayed Recall. "After a few presentations the associa- 
tions did not come in with the syllables ; the syllables themselves seemed 
to function just as the meaningful words would have done in carrying 
meaning." 

XIII. When associations have been formed with the words 
of the series the following phenomenon often appears in the 
recall : The meaningful association comes first ; the actual 
words of the series come later. 

P, Vm. (Did any associations appear in the immediate recall?) 
"Yes. With the words DOTH-KLINK-GLOW the meaningful con- 
tent came first and the words themselves later." 

T, AM. Delayed Recall. " The feeling of familiarity was present 
with most syllables and the meaningful association came in before 
the nonsense-syllables." 

C, VM. Delayed Recall. " I set up the vocimotor-auditory Aufgabe, 
'Try to call up an association and see if the words will come;' imme- 
diately ' wigwam ' flashed in in visual imagery, but the ' wig ' faded 
out of consciousness very quickly and WAM was clear and distinct." 

W , Vm. Delayed Recall. " The associations which I had in the 
learning came in before the words and were followed in each case 
by visual imagery of the word; the associations always came in in 
visual imagery." 

Fi, VAM. Delayed Recall. " I had a vague visual image of some 
books ; this meant for me language-books. Then came the vocimotor- 
auditory image ' Latin ;' immediately QAH appeared in visual imagery." 

S, VA. Delayed Recall. " In anticipating the series the concrete 
imagery came in first; e.g., I had visual imagery of some soil and a 
consciousness, which I can not describe, that the next word was related 
to soil ; following this I had a visual image of a tub of clams ; imme- 



262 O'BRIEN 

diately I had an auditory image of the word CLAM ; the association 
immediately dropped out." 

XIV. In adding an extraneous syllable to a syllable of the 
series, — as in the case of making the word ' Berlin ' from the 
printed syllable BER, — a remarkable phenomenon occurs in 
that, while the intruding syllable inay come to consciousness 
during the act of recall, the O never fails to recognize that 
it does not belong to the series. Although it is present as 
among the contents of his recalled consciousness of the series, 
in the recall he never reports the formed word but always 
reports the syllable which was presented to him. 

T, Vm. "With the syllable JIT I formed the association 'jitney;' 
JIT was completed by a vocimotor ' ney,' very faint and less intensive 
than the vocimotor JIT." 

C, VAMm. " With the syllable FEK I had the association ' Fech- 
ner;' that is, after the visual perception of FEK there was vocimotor 
imagery of it ; then I wrote it ; then I had visual perception of the 
word I had written with a visual image of NER after the FEK, 
with vocimotor-auditory imagery of ' Fechner ;' the FEK was more 
clear and definite in the vocimotor-auditory image than the NER." 

Fe, VM. "The syllable JOS was recalled in vocimotor-auditory 
imagery as ' Joseph,' with the emphasis on the JOS part." 

IV, VAMm. " I had several verbal associations present mostly in 
auditory imagery ; for example, LIB=' liberal ;' the syllable LIB was 
more intensive than the rest ; the latter syllables dropped out very 
early in the learning." 

Fi, VMm. Delayed Recall. "After I had given XOL-JIT I had 
rapid vocimotor imagery of 'funny rector;' the nonsense component 
was emphasized and the completing part of the word was very indefi- 
nite." (The syllables were FUN and REC.) 

XV. The size of the group which is formed by an in 
the learning is sometimes determined by the immediate memory 
span of the O. 

C, VM. (What determined the number of words which would 
constitute a group?) "The number of words which I was able to 
retain in the amount of time I had left after the presentation of one 
word and before the next one was presented determined in most 
cases the size of the group." 

IV, A. " I tried to retain the words in visual imagery in groups of 
5, but in the interval between the presentations of the words I was 
not able to retain that number, so I set up the Aufgabe to divide them 
into groups of 3 ; this I did." 

5", AM. " Between the presentations of the words I would repeat 
about 4 of the immediately preceding words ; I could not carry any 
more in memory. Then I started ofif with the fifth one as the first of 
the second group, and so on, until I got 4. This grouping took place 
in the first presentation." 

XVI. The size of the group of words formed by an O in 
the learning may be determined by the number of words that 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 263 

the O is able to anticipate in the interval between the presen- 
tations of two successive words. 

P, A. " I began to combine the words, as many as I was able, 
between the presentations of two successive words." 

C, VAm. " Some of the words were learned in pairs, because in 
joining them together I had time to go over only the word now being 
presented and the preceding one." 

S, VAM. " In the first presentation I attempted to recall all the 
words I had passed up to about the fifth, as I found I was able to 
retain only this number of words. This threw the series into two 
groups of 5 each. This I did for 2 or 3 presentations." 

XVII. The O may set up an Aiifgabc to divide the series 
into definite groups. This course makes the size of the groups 
arbitrary. 

P, VMm. " I set out with the vocimotor-auditory Aufgahe to group 
the words in pairs." 

^^ T, AM. (Why was it that your groups contained 4 syllables?) 
In the beginnmg I set out with the Aufgabe to group the syllables 
m fours; during the presentation of the series I just found myself 
doing it." 

C, AM. "After I passed the first 4 words I held them in visual 
imagery and in vocimotor-auditory imagery; this was the result of an 
Aufgabe set up in the foreperiod of the learning." 

Fe, VMm. " The series were grouped in 5 groups of 4 each in the 
order m which they occurred." This grouping seems to be the result 
of an Eiiistelluiig. 

W, VAMm. "After you had given me the signal 'Ready, now,' I 
had vocimotor-auditory imagery of ' Get them by fives right ofif.' Then 
I had a very faint visual image of an entire sheet of paper with 
a schema of 4 groups." 

Pi, VM. " The words were divided into groups of 4." As this 
grouping took place in the first presentation, it seems evident that it 
was the result of an Einstellung carrying over from experiences in 
other investigaitons in which lists of nonsense material were used. 

Xyill. Dijring the act of anticipating, and later in recalling 
a series, a visual schema of the series is sometimes present, 
especially for O's of the visual type. 

T, Vm. Delayed Recall. "A visual schema of a vertical column 
in front of me appeared in consciousness ; the schema became clear 
as there was eye-movement from the bottom up. The upper part 
remained very focal, especially the third place from the top. Then 
MIH came clearly in visual imagery (printed)." 

C, VAMm. Delayed Recall. " Each word came first in vocimotor 
imagery, followed by auditory and then by visual imagery; the visual 
image of the word appeared in a visualized column, and as visual 
attention moved up the column each word came in clearly." 

W, A. "TINT-ANAL came in in visual imagery on a visualized 
sheet of paper in front of me, one word below the other." 

Pi Am Delayed Recall. " I had a vague visual schema in which 
the first 4 syllables stood out more clearly than the rest." 



264 O'BRIEN 

S, A. Delayed Recall. " The first word came on the top of a visual- 
ized sheet of paper, the visual image being of the mimetic sort (J) 
and accompanied by vocimotor and auditory imagery of ' ent.' Imme- 
diately DENT was vocalized." 

XIX. During the act of anticipating, and later in recalling 
a series, a kinaesthetic schema of the series of words or 
syllables is sometimes present, especially with O's of the motor 
type. 

Pj AM. " Sometimes I stopped anticipating between the pairs and 
attempted to get a clear percept of each word, localizing them on my 
fingers ; sometimes I did this for two successive presentations." 

T, AM. " The immediate recall was as usual in vocimotor imagery 
with kinaesthetic imagery of tapping in the tempo with which each 
syllable was presented in the learning." 

Fe, VAMm. " There was also present my localizing kinaesthetic 
schema, present in kinaesthetic imagery of pointing from left to right 
with my right hand, with eye-fixation at the place where I was point- 
ing. In this process the eye-fixation was much more focal and in- 
tensive than the kinaesthetic imagery of pointing." 

IV, VAM. " Eye-kinaesthesis. I had a visual image of a sheet 
of paper; then unpleasantness and a sudden shift of visual attention 
to the bottom of the paper, which meant to me that the words which 
I had just now recalled did not belong at the top of the list." 

Ft, AM. Delayed Recall. " For the first time in the recall I was 
aware of a vague visual schema which was different from the one 
I generally use ; that is, I was aware of certain regions in the air in 
front of me, more of a spatial reference to something that was not 
filled in. This was followed by a kinaesthesis in the neck and eyes 
of turning slightly to one side in order to fixate this region; perhaps 
there was actual eye-movement. . . . Then DOY came in in 
visual imagery." 

S, A. " I was conscious of eye-movement up and down this visual 
schema ; the lower part of the schema was focal and the first 3 words 
were anticipated in visual imagery." 

XX. Words which are not recalled promptly are generally 
preceded, when they are recalled, by a schema which mediates 
their advent into consciousness. 

P, VMm. " When a word did not appear I would focus attention 
on the finger with which that word was associated ; and the word 
when it appeared would come slowly in vocimotor and auditory 
imagery." 

T, Am. Delayed Recall. "Attention as focused on the bottom of a 
visual image of a vertical list. Eye-movement up several times, which 
meant to me ' Start at the bottom and go up.' While fixating this 
point, QIW finally came in in vocimotor imagery, but there was no 
visual imagery." 

C, A. Delayed Recall. "Before I recalled KITE and SOFA, I 
had a visual blank in which there was room for 2 words ; then voci- 
motor-auditory imagery, 'Two words associated together;' then both 
words appeared in visual imagery, localized on this visual schema, 
one over the other." 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 265 

Ft, A. " There was a hesitation in which no words came ; great 
tensions in the body ; there had been gradually developing a visual 
schema in which I saw the series in a grayish outline extending toward 
the south-west from the floor." 

XXI. If the word is recalled in imagery of the modality 
corresponding to O's type and is not clear, it is often clarified 
by a coming in of imagery of a modality corresponding to 
the mode of presentation. 

T, VA. Delayed Recall. " DEJ appeared in vocimotor-auditory 
imagery, followed by a visual image, localized to the left of the 
aperture; the d was especially clear." 

C, A. Delayed Recall. " In recalling DEAD, DEA appeared first 
in visual imagery, and this was completed by an auditory image form- 
ing the complete word DEAD." 

JV, Am. Delayed Recall. "CARD came in in visual imagery, local- 
ized at the top of the visual schema; not more than the AR and a 
very faint d were present. Immediately I had auditory imagery of 
the whole word, with emphasis upon the c; I repeated the whole word 
to myself in vocimotor-auditory terms several times." 

S, VAMm. Delayed Recall. " I had a faint vocimotor-auditory 
image of TOLA. This was followed by a very clear visual image 
of it in print." 

XXII. The recalled word may appear first in the imagery 
corresponding to the mode of presentation and may be com- 
pleted or clarified by the coming in of imagery corresponding 
to O's imaginal type. 

T, AM. "After a long pause I had a clear visual image of the 
letter a; then a vocimotor image of FAZ ; then I vocalized it." 

C, AM. Delayed Recall. " Very often I had a visual image of the 
first part of the word which would be completed by a very clear dis- 
tinct visual image of the whole word." 

W, A. " XUT appeared first in indistinct auditory imagery, I think 
of your voice; this was completed by a visual image of the word on 
a sheet of paper in front of me ; the word appeared in type." 

Fi, Vm. Delayed Recall. "All the words came in. There was 
perhaps a very vague visual image first, in printed type, accompanied 
by a distinct vocimotor-auditory image." 

S, VA. " Most of the syllables were usually completed or filled 
out by a vocimotor image, although the syllable first appeared in a 
visual image." 

XXIII. Visual imagery is not suited for a rapid anticipation 
or recall. If the O recalls very rapidly, it is found that the 
visual imagery does not develop quickly enough, and that for 
this reason the O often has recourse to vocimotor or auditory 
imagery or to both. 

C, VAM. " I began anticipating the second presentation in auditory 
imagery, then in visual imagery. About the middle of the presentation 
I started rapid anticipation and this was done in vocimotor-auditory 
imagery, the visual imagery not coming in at all; I anticipated so 
rapidly that it seemed there was not time for it to develop." 



266 O'BRIEN 

W, VMm. " In the immediate recall I was surprised to find myself 
repeating the first 5 words in vocimotor imagery with no visual ; I 
gave them very rapidly from the vocimotor image and only one vague 
visual image (of the word WAGE) came in." 

Fi, V. " I then attempted to visualize the words, but the attempt 
always failed me and I abandoned it. The auditory-vocimotor antici- 
pation was much more rapid than the visual." 

XXIV. The mode of presentation does not determine the 
modahty of the imagery which the learner will employ in learn- 
ing a given material. 

P, A. Delayed Recall. "The first pair of words that appeared was 
ERGO-VAMP; they appeared in vocimotor imagery while pressing 
the fourth finger." 

T, V. " The immediate recall of this series was mostly in actual 
speech, many of the words being preceded by vocimotor-auditory 
imagery." 

C, AM. " Most all the words appeared in visual imagery, followed 
very often by vocimotor-auditory imagery; the words were localized 
on my visual schema." 

Fe, y. " CALF, SOFT, HUMP, URNS and BARK all came, one 
at a time, in vocimotor-auditory imagery, most of the auditory being 
of my own voice, but the vocimotor image seemed to be more intensive 
and clear." 

IV, AMm. Delayed Recall. " The first 7 words came in visual imag- 
ery; no vocimotor or auditory imagery was present." 

Fi, V. "The immediate recall came in vocimotor imagery; no visual 
imagery." 

S, A. Delayed Recall. " This recall was made from a visual image 
of the list about the size used in the presentation ; I started at the 
bottom of the list and went up. HASH came in vocimotor imagery; 
then in visual imagery. MILT-CUBE came in visual and vocimotor 
imagery. Which came first I can not say." 

XXV. If the O fails in his attempt to anticipate a forth- 
coming word, he sometimes attends to the preceding words 
which he had just anticipated, and then he waits for the desired 
word to come into consciousness. 

P, VM. "After a few presentations I was able to anticipate the 
first pair and also the last 5 pairs. After this I attended wholly to 
the words which I was not able to anticipate. As soon as I per- 
ceived them I repeated them over and over until the next word was 
presented. . . . During this time I was neglecting the last 5 pairs 
which I had anticipated early in the learning. Later on, when I per- 
ceived these words focally as they were being presented, they ap- 
peared as new words." 

T, YAM. "After I was able to anticipate the syllables I would 
hardly look at them . . . as if I were anxious to get to the place 
where I could not anticipate." 

C, VMm. " In the third stage of the learning I attended to the 
drum only when I was not able to anticipate a syllable or when I 
was not sure when the word which I had anticipated was correct." 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 267 

Fe, V. " Toward the end of the learning I had visual perception 
only of those words which I was unable to anticipate." 

W, A. " Toward the end of the learning process I did not attend 
to your presentation of the words until I was able to anticipate. In 
the last presentation I anticipated all the syllables." 

Fi, VAM. " The syllables were anticipated mostly in vocimotor- 
auditory imagery; next I would look at the drum and, if I had antici- 
pated correctly, there would be a pronunciation of the syllable and 
then a turning away of my visual line of regard from the drum; then 
I would anticipate the next word." 

S, AM. " In the third presentation I actually anticipated every 
syllable in the series ; this anticipation was made with but little atten- 
tion to you ; I attended only to my own anticipatory processes." 

XXVI. If an O is unable to anticipate a word he often 
repeats the preceding words until the desired word appears. 

P, VA. "All the words came easily up to the seventh pair ; then 
a blank ; that is, no imagery came ; then I had imagery of the next 
pair, so I gave it; I then went back to the sixth pair and repeated 
it in vocimotor-auditory terms ; immediately the second pair followed 
right on." 

T, VAM. Delayed Recall. " PIW was repeated several times, mostly 
in auditory imagery. Immediately CUG-QAR came in vocimotor 
imagery, no schema being present." 

C, VAM. Delayed Recall. " The first 8 words appeared first as very 
definite and intensive auditory imagery, followed by vocimotor imag- 
ery; then I had a visual image of a blank, to which I attended. Finally 
NEXT appeared in vocimotor imagery." 

Fe, AMm. Delayed Recall. " ' Crop ' came very easily in vocimotor- 
auditory imagery ; auditory imagery of my own voice ; then no 
imagery came but there was great unpleasantness and strains. ' CROP, 
— un, un ' was repeated several times in vocimotor imagery ; finally a 
vocimotor, ' Gee, don't know these.' " 

W, VM. " When the words did not appear promptly in the imme- 
diate recall there was a period during which there was no imaginal 
content in consciousness ; then my eye moved up and down that part 
of the visual schema to which the desired word belonged ; usually visual 
imagery of the words preceding and following the desired words 
would come in ; then suddenly these words would appear in visual 
imagery in their correct place." 

Fi. A. Delayed Recall. " I had a visual schema in which was a 
blank space for about 2 words ; I attended to the schema for awhile, 
conscious of strains in the whole body; then the syllable NAF came 
in vocimotor-auditory imagery and the remaining words of the series 
followed." 

5", VAM. " I had a visual image of my schema with a visual image 
of IDOL at the top of the list; then blank spaces for about 3 words 
below which meant to me that there were words left out ; then voci- 
motor-auditory Aufgabe, ' Try your vocimotor ; you can get it that 
way;' then I had vocimotor-auditory imagery of IDOL several times 
and the remaining words came in finally." 



268 O'BRIEN 

XXVII. If an O comes to a part of the series which he 
is unable to anticipate, he very often stops his attempted an- 
ticipation until the word desired is presented to him in the 
ordinary course of the presentation of the series ; he perceives 
this word, if the presentation is visual, or calls up imagery of 
it, if the presentation is auditory, until the next word is 
presented. 

C, VMm. " In the next presentation I started to anticipate ; in the 
middle of the series I had great difficulty ; when they were presented 
I looked at them very hard and wrote them down, and looked at the 
word I had written for a long time." 

IV, V. " In the last presentation I adopted the same procedure 
as formerly, anticipating ahead of the actual presentation. When I 
could not anticipate I had recourse to the retention method ; that is, 
as soon as the desired word was presented it was held in conscious- 
ness for a long time." 

XXVIII. When an O could not recall a word, he some- 
times set up the Aufgabe to go through the alphabet in an 
attempt to get the word desired; i.e., commencing with a, then 
b, etc., he would pronounce each letter or call up a visual 
image of it, excepting that, when he came to the letter which 
was the initial letter of the desired word, the word itself 
would come to consciousness. 

T, VAMm. "After I had given CEJ there was a blank; visual 
schema came in and the last 3 syllables stood out focally and I gave 
them to you ; the fourth last space became focal but no syllable ap- 
peared ; then I set up the vocimotor-auditory Aufgabe to go through 
the alphabet ; when I came to M, MUN came in vocimotor-auditory 
imagery; with this there was also a visual image of MUV, with the 
V much more clear than the MU." 

C, Am. Delayed Recall. " JOQ-HAT was recalled in a sort of a 
logical procedure. A vocimotor-auditory Aufgabe, ' Go through the 
alphabet' . . . When I came to / I had vocimotor-auditory imag- 
ery, 'Some syllable had a ; in it;' then a visual image of a ;. accom- 
panied by pleasant affective toning, and HOJ came in in visual imagery. 

XXIX. In the learning, some of the words formed ' corner 
stones ' on which the remainder of the series was learned. 

fj/^ VA. " My procedure was to retain in visual imagery the first 
and last of each group of 5, and then to add one word each time in 
each presentation." 

IV , Vm. " I spent the rest of this presentation in attending to the 
firsthand last word of each group; that is, looking at them more 
attentively and keeping them longer in visual imagery than I did 
the rest of the group. In the next presentation these words so retained 
were always recognized as the first and last word of a group. . 
Later I commenced to attend more closely to the middle of each group. 
Then my procedure changed to one of anticipation ; I could anticipate 
the first and last of each 5, then the middle. The rest of the pro- 
cedure consisted in anticipating the remaining words of each group." 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 269 

The Process of Learning 

The process of learning was found to consist of three dis- 
tinct stages ; and these three stages recurred throughout the 
experiments, whatever the mode of presentation, or the nature 
of the materials to be learned, or the ideational type (or 
learning-type) of the learner.-" 

I. The Orienting Stage. This initial stage of the process of learning 
extends over only the first few presentations of any given series to be 
learned. Whether it is confined to the first presentation alone, or 
whether it extends over several presentations, depends less upon the 
ideational type of the individual than upon the nature of the material 
itself {i.e., whether meaningful words or nonsense-syllables) and the 
nature of the series {i.e., whether difficult or easy for the particular 
individual). 

During the presentation of the material in this orienting stage, the 
attitude of the learner is one of passive receptivity. He makes no 
attempt either to group or to anticipate the words which are being 
presented ; he merely perceives them. There are rare exceptions. Oc- 
casionally an O manifested an incipient tendency during this initial 
stage to group the materials into larger units, a tendency apparently 
consequent upon his having set up for himself during the foreperiod 
an Aufgabe to divide the list of material into groups of definite 
size. W sought groups of five and Fe groups of four. 

If the mode of presentation is a combined visual-auditory one, the 
learner in most cases attends focally to either the auditory or the 
visual stimulus alone, and very seldom to both equally. A feeling 
of familiarity for the series tends to develop during this initial stage, 
and marks the progress of the learner's orientation in his task. 

It appears that the perception of the words, no matter how they 
may be presented, is invariably followed, at least in the first few 
presentations, by a reflex reproduction of them by the learner. This 
reproduction occurs in vocimotor or in vocimotor-auditory terms. 
Even the instruction to inhibit vocimotor imagery fails to prevent the 
vocimotor reproductions, at least during the first few presentations 
of the list.2i 

20 Meumann, Vorlesungen, II, divides the learning process into four 
stages: (1) the orientation or adaptation stage; (2) the stage of 
passive recptivity; (3) the stage in which the material is tentatively 
recited or checked by the learner ; (4) the stage in which the learner 
finally fixes the uncertain parts of the series. The first and second 
stages of learning as given by Meumann dififer but little, if at all, 
and therefore can easily be combined into one stage. If this is done 
our classification agrees exactly with that of Meumann. 

21 Secor, W. B. (Visual Reading, A study in mental imagery, Amer. 
J. Psychol., 11, 1900, 225-236), in his experiments on reading, reported 
that vocimotor movements could be inhibited. Curtis, H. S. (Auto- 
matic movements of the larynx, ibid., 11, 1900, 237-239), using a dif- 
ferent type of laryngograph, obtained graphic records of vocimotor 
movements when his O's were mentally reciting a poem or a selection 
of prose. If Curtis' results are to be taken to mean that vocimotor 
movement was present in all cases, it is probable that Secor's learners 
employed vocimotor imagery, if not the actual vocimotor innervation. 
Abbott (On the analysis of memory consciousness in orthography. 



270 O'BRIEN 

When a learner of the visual type is fairly successful in inhibiting 
vocimotor processes, his visual imagery is usually less clear and definite 
than when the vocimotor processes are allowed to function in natural 
fashion. When the learner of the motor type attempts to inhibit the 
vocimotor processes, auditory imagery frequently makes its appearance 
and plays a more important role than when the vocimotor processes 
are not interfered with. Auditory imagery may thus be enhanced even 
when the learner does not succeed in completely inhibiting his voci- 
motor processes.22 

In rare instances learners succeeded in almost wholly eliminating 
the vocimotor processes from the very start of the series ; but in every 
such case they found that it was impossible completely to memorize 
the materials presented.^^ Even though the list were presented a great 
many times (in one instance 39 times), the process of memorizing 
still remained far from complete, and the learner eventually always 
gave up his attempt to memorize the material. A subsequent attempt 
to recall the list would show that not more than 5 or 6 words out 
of a list of 20 had been memorized, and that these words the O recalled 
with but a slight degree of subjective assurance and with no definite 
consciousness as to their exact position in the list. Every attempt 
to complete the act of memorizing without the participation of the 
vocimotor processes thus ended in failure and the abandonment of 
the efifort to learn on account of fatigue or lack of time. Learners 
of the motor type were especially unsuccessful. 

With the O of visual type, the vocimotor image, though essential 
at first, tends to disappear very early in the learning process. It is 
seldom present after the fifth or sixth presentation of the series. 
This rule holds even when the learner is not instructed to inhibit voci- 
motor imagery. We hold, consequently, that, whatever the imaginal 
type of the learner may be, vocimotor imagery or vocimotor innerva- 
tion is absolutely necessary for an individual to begin to learn a series 

Psychol. Rev. Mon. Sup., 11, 1909, 127-158) found that vocimotor 
processes were always an aid, and Smedley (op. cit.), concluded that 
it was impossible to test a single sense-modality because vocimotor 
imagery could not be repressed. The results obtained by Mould, 
Treadwell and Washburn (The influence of suppressing articulation 
on the favorable effects of distributing repetitions, Amer. J. Psychol., 
26, 1915, 286-288) show that the recall is twice as efficient when the O 
is allowed to use vocimotor imagery in the learning as when he is 
told not to use it, and accordingly attempts to inhibit it. The statistical 
data of these investigations indicate that vocimotor imagery was never 
wholly eliminated, and that the repression of vocimotor imagery was 
always a great distraction to the learners. 

22 This phenomenon has also been reported by Abbott and Secor, 
op p. citt. 

23 Kline, L. W. (A study in the psychology of spelling, /. Educ. 
Psychol., 3, 1912, 381-400) found that any interference with the dom- 
inant receptor mechanism results in a greater impairment of the learn- 
ing process than does an interference with the preferred form of ex- 
pression. Muller and Schumann (Experimentelle Beitrage zur Unter- 
suchung des Gedachtnisses, Zsch. f. Psychol, 6, 1893, 81-190, 175-339) 
found that the repression of rhythmic vocalization renders learning 
almost impossible for some O's. Cohn {op. cit.) also found that voci- 
motor processes were important to the learning and that learning was 
less efficient when the learner attempted to inhibit vocimotor imagery. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 271 

of words or nonsense-syllables. In these early stages it can rarely 
be eliminated by instruction, and its elimination, when it does occur, 
prevents learning. 

When the O is given the Aufgabc to inhibit vocimotor imagery, he 
reacts in either of two ways. (1) He may accept the Aufgabc and 
actively attempt to inhibit it; if he is successful to a great degree, 
very little learning, if any, takes place. (2) He may comply with the 
instructions by setting up for himself a new Aufgabc, usually in voci- 
motor terms, to use imagery of another modality; e.g., 'use visual 
imagery.' This latter procedure is more efficient than the first, but 
is effective only for O's of the visual type and after the first few 
presentations. 

When the Aufgabc required that the O pronounce the material aloud, 
vocalization often proved a hindrance to the learning. The chief fault 
of vocalization lies in the fact that it fills up so much of the time- 
interval (3 sees.) between the presentation of successive syllables that 
little time is allowed for the learner to anticipate the next syllable, 
and such anticipation is the learner's method of testing his knowledge 
of the series. As a matter of fact vocalization of the material, when 
required, becomes less intensive in the later stages of the learning. 

II. The Stage of Attempted Anticipation. In the second stage of the 
learning process the O is very active in his attempts to anticipate the 
forthcoming members of the series. The power to anticipate the series 
becomes in every case the O's criterion that he has learned the material. 

The anticipation takes place either in visual or vocimotor (auditory) 
terms, depending upon the learner's type. In this stage the learner 
actually succeeds, however, in anticipating only a very few words, for 
he is concerned chiefly in obtaining a clear perception of each word 
during presentation and in attempting to combine the word at hand 
with the preceding and subsequent words. 

In rapid anticipation the learner of visual type often makes use of 
vocimotor-auditory imagery, reporting that visual imagery does not 
develop quickly enough and that he therefore finds himself using 
vocimotor imagery. 2* 

The first two or three and the last two or three words of a series 
are usually the first to be anticipated. There is no definite order in 
which the remaining words begin to be anticipated. Only one of our 
7 O's {S) did not invariably resort to grouping of the words, and even 
he occasionally used this expedient, although by no means so frequently 
as the other O's who always grouped the words. 

The number of words or syllables which constitute a group is 
determined in one of five ways. (1) The time intervening between 
the presentation of tzvo successive mords. As soon as a word was 
presented, the learner would repeat it, and then repeat as many of 
the preceding words as possible before the following word was pre- 
sented. The maximum number of words that he was able to repeat 

-* Binet and Henri (La memoire des mots, Annee psychoL, 1, 1894, 
1-23) report material recalled in vocimotor-auditory terms, because 
recall was so rapid that a visual image did not have time to develop. 
Von Sybel {op. cit.) found that when an O of visual type became 
fatigued he had recourse to vocimotor imagery. Von Sybel also found 
that the visual learner again employed vocimotor imagery when the 
presentation of the material was very rapid. Pohlmann {op. cit.) 
observed that an O of visual type is hampered in his learning by a 
too rapid auditory presentation. 



272 O'BRIEN 

in this time would constitute a group. (2) The immediate memory- 
span of the O. As many words as an O was able to repeat to himself 
from immediate memory without confusing their order or forgetting 
a word would constitute a group. If he attempted to add another 
word to such a group, he would be unable to recall one or more of 
the words, and this failure would mean to him that he had exceeded 
his immediate memory-span. (3) A meaningful association. If a 
certain number of words form a meaningful association, then this 
number of words may form a group. (4) The Aufgabe. In the fore- 
period, or during the learning, the O may set up an Aufgabe to group 
in fours or fives, thus forming a purely arbitrary group. The size 
of the groups chosen is frequently determined by the O's experience, 
either during the experiment or in previous experiments, by which he 
knows what size of group is the most efficient for him to work with 
in learning a series of words. (5) Difficult words. A difficult word 
often marked the beginning of a group ; if a learner had especial diffi- 
culty either in perceiving a word or in anticipating it, this difficult 
word would become the initial member of a group. The next diffi- 
cult word would be the first word of the next group; thus the number 
of words which would constitute such a group varied. 

A group formed through the medium of a meaningful association 
is least apt to be forgotten in the recall. An entire group thus formed 
may fail to appear to consciousness in the recall ; but, if the first 
word of the group can be recalled by the O, the others follow very 
quickly. 

Meaningful associations are present in the first few presentations 
only and then drop out, seldom to reappear in the learning. This 
rule holds no matter in what modality of imagery the association ap- 
pears. The effect of such association is manifest in anticipation and 
recall, for the meaningfully associated words come into consciousness 
more quickly, one after the other, than the other words. 

The temporal relations between the appearance of the words of the 
series and their meaningful associations are as follows. (1) The 
words to be recalled come into consciousness quickly and clearly in 
the imagery of the O's type ; the meaning is present in the words them- 
selves and in the fact that they come together. The O was unable 
to find any other introspective evidence to explain the meaning. (2) 
The meaningful content comes into consciousness in imagery of any 
modality; the words of the series come later and very quickly, one 
after the other, in the imagery of the O's type. If the association is 
present in a visual-concrete or an auditory-concrete image, it is fol- 
lowed by verbal imagery of the desired word in the imagery of the 
O's type. (3) The words themselves come first in the imagery of 
the O's type, and the meaningful content comes later, either in verbal 
or concrete imagery of any modality. (4) If a meaning was attached 
to a syllable by adding one or two syllables to the presented syllable, 
thereby making it a meaningful word, the O ' knows ' what part of 
the made-word is the syllable desired by the fact that the desired 
syllable is more clear and definite, if a visual image, and more intensive 
and distinct, if the image is motor or auditory or auditory-motor, than 
the added or associated part. 

III. Anticipatory Stage. In this final stage of the process of learn- 
ing, the O is concerned chiefly in anticipating the syllables. He may 
anticipate as rapidly as he is able with no reference to the words which 
are being presented, or he may anticipate one word at a time just 
before it is presented to him. As soon as the word is presented he 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 273 

perceives it focally, and again anticipates the next word just before 
it is presented to him. Vocimotor imagery may or may not be present 
if the O is of visual type; if he is of motor type he repeats this stimu- 
lus-word several times and then links it with the preceding or subse- 
quent words, or with both. 

In the case of an O whose anticipation of words or syllables is far 
in advance of their actual presentation, an interesting phenomenon 
is seen when the O comes to a point in the series where anticipation 
is impossible. Then the process of anticipating ceases until, in the 
actual presentation, that word is reached which he failed to anticipate. 

This procedure of anticipating and linking up the words which he 
can not anticipate, a learner continues until all the words have been 
anticipated at least once. In many instances, after correctly antici- 
pating the series once, he will set up the Aufgabe, ' Go through and 
anticipate the series once more, to make certain;' and then, having 
again anticipated successfully, he will signify that he has learned 
the series. 

When the material is presented to the learner in a purely auditory 
fashion, he very often finds it difficult to obtain a definite percept of 
words or syllables containing such letters as c, k, d, q, and t occurring 
either as initial or final letters, and w and h occurring as final letters 
in a syllable.-^ 

Some O's, as soon as they perceive the auditory stimulus, decide 
upon a definite spelling of the word, especially in the latter part of the 
investigation. In this way the uncertainty as to the correct spelling 
of the word, if it enters at all, is very slight. In most instances such 
words are not spelled by the O's in the form in which E had them in 
his lists. 

Greater attention, it appears, may be secured by material presented 
in auditory fashion than by material presented visually. This dif- 
ference is due to the nature of the auditory presentation itself. Indi- 
viduals find it more difficult to obtain a definite auditory perception 



25 Henmon, V. A. C. (The relation between mode of presentation 
and retention, Psychol. Rev., 19, 1912, 79-96) found that material was 
learned more efficiently when the words were presented in purely audi- 
tory fashion, but he excluded all syllables ending in c, q and h, and all 
syllables beginning with .v. The excluding of words containing these 
letters from his material did away with the main difficulty connected 
with the auditory mode of presentation. Hennion claims he was in- 
vestigating the relative efficiency of the dififerent modes of presenta- 
tion, but by omitting words containing such letters as c, q. k, he elim- 
inated one of the difficulties necessarily connected with the' auditory 
mode of presentation. The auditory mode of presentation, therefore, 
was given an advantage which was not given to the other modes 
of presentation, since many letters like e, a, b, I, look alike in the 
visual presentation, and may give rise to an indefinite visual per- 
ception. 

Pohlmann {op. cit.) found that auditory presentation is better than 
visual for young children. This result can be explained by the fact 
that children are more familiar with spoken language than with written 
language. Pohlmann also found that auditory presentation is not 
efficient for the learning of nonsense-syllables because the learner is 
often uncertain as to what the exact sound is. 

Abbott {op. cit.) also confirms our findings, for her O's recognized 
only about one-half of the words when they were pronounced to them. 



274 O'BRIEN 

than a definite visual perception, especially with nonsense material, 
hence greater attention is required when the material is presented in 
auditory fashion. Nevertheless in spite of increased attention audi- 
tory presentation does not increase the efficiency of learning. To a 
large extent this heightened attention is aroused by the inherent indis- 
tinctness of the auditory percept, and the O's alertness is expended 
in decisions about the material and not in further impression of the 
material. 

In both the immediate and delayed recalls the material is recalled 
always as individual words, though the words may have been grouped 
in the learning. Words which were grouped in the learning came to 
mind more quickly in the recall one after the other and with a slightly 
longer pause after the last one, than do words which were not grouped. 
Those O's who employ a visual schema often in grouping visualize 
a part of this schema, equal to that which the number of words in the 
group would require if they were printed in the same fashion as the 
material used in the visual presentation. The words themselves then 
come to consciousness, one at a time, usually in visual imagery. Words 
not grouped in the learning come to consciousness in the recalls, 
one at a time, but much more slowly than the grouped words. 

In many cases an O is subjectively certain that the recalled material 
is correct, but the structure of this subjective assurance is not the 
same for all O's.^*^ The following items, arranged in order of impor- 
tance, may contribute to this state of consciousness, although not more 
than two or three of them need be present at any one time. (1) 
The O after recalling a word was able to attempt the recall of the 
subsequent word without the first word reappearing during the at- 
tempted recall of the second word ; (2) the imagery of recall comes 
rapidly to consciousness; (3) the recalled words are pronounced with 
positiveness ; (4) the affective tone is pleasant. 

When the words do not come to consciousness quickly either in the 
anticipating or in the recall, all O's, regardless of their imaginal type, 
usually recall the words in vocimotor imagery. ^^ 

26 Finzi {op. cit.) noted that subjective assurance depends upon the 
distinctness of the memory image; the more distinct the image the 
more convinced is one of its fidelity. He also found that certain 
organic sensations are present when the learner is subjectively certain 
that his recall is correct. Frankfurther and Thiele (op. cit.) pointed 
out that an important requisite for this state is the presence of a 
spatial schema for localizing the material. Kiihn, A. (Ueber Einpra- 
gung durch Lesen und durch Rezitieren, Zsch. f. Psychol., 68, 1914, 
396-482) noted the following factors as making up the consciousness 
of subjective assurance: (1) clearness of the visual image, (2) num- 
ber of helps, and (3) smoothness of recall. Meyer (Bereitschaft und 
Wiedererkennen, Zsch. f. Psychol., 70, 1914, 161-211) emphasized two 
factors: (1) quickness of reaction time and (2) definiteness of localiza- 
tion. Pederson (Experimentelle Untersuchung der visuellen und 
akustischen Erinnerungsbilder, angestellt an Schulkindern, Arch. f. d. 
ges. Psychol., 4, 1905, 520-534) held that (1) a good perception of the 
material and (2) a highly concentrated attention were the requisites 
for a consciousness of subjective assurance. 

27 Von Sybel (op. cit.) also found this to be the case. He reported 
that his learners used more vocimotor imagery and less visual imagery 
when the series was difficult to acquire. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 275 

A schema of localization is usually employed by O's in the recall, 
especially when the material to be recalled docs not come to con- 
sciousness quickly. There are three types of schemata: (1) a visual 
schema; (2) a kinaesthetic schema; (3) a rhythmic schema. 

(1) Visual Schema. This schema is employed mostly by O's of the 
visual type,-s and to a less extent by some O's of the motor type. It 
consists of a visual image of a sheet of paper with words printed on 
it. It is usually localized directly in front of the with the words 
appearing in a vertical column, the first word at the top. In one 
instance this schema appeared in a horizontal plane with the words 
running from left to right. When a word does not come to con- 
sciousness quickly, the schema appears first. The part of the schema 
to which the word belongs is most focal, and the rest of the schema 
is present in a very indefinite non-focal fashion. The word desired 
then appears in consciousness in visual imagery, usually localized in 
its proper place in the schema. Some O's are conscious of eye-move- 
ment up and down the series localizing the words in the visual schema. 

(2) Kinaesthetic Schema. This schema is used by the O's of the 
motor type who employ very little visual imagery. It consists of a 
kinaesthetic movement or imagery of movement of the hand or 
head pointing to that part of the series to which the particular word 
belongs. The extreme left of the O represents the first word of the 
series and the extreme right the last of the series. No visual imagery 
is present, although there is the kinaesthesis of eye-movement accom- 
panying the manumotor or arm-motor imagery of pointing. 

(3) Rhythmic Schema. This schema is used by O's of all types, 
and consists of a vocimotor consciousness of rhythmic sounds. In 
some instances no definite words or syllables are present.^^ The 
rhythm, up to the point where the word fails to appear, is repeated 
by the O until the required word is obtained or until the learner gives 
up his attempt to recall the word. 

When the words do not appear in consciousness some O's often set 
up an Aufgabc, usually in vocimotor-auditory terms, to go through the 
alphabet ; i.e., start with a and pronounce each letter, expecting that 
when the correct initial letter is pronounced the word itself will come 
to consciousness. 

The clearness and definiteness with which any schema appears in 
consciousness is in direct relationship to the difficulty with which 
the words appeared. If the words come to consciousness after a 
short pause, the schema, if it appears at all, is non-focal; if the word 
or group does not appear until a relatively long time has elapsed, the 
schema is focal and definite in consciousness. Since the schema is 
more focally present when the recall of words is more difficult, it is 
therefore more focal in delayed recall than in immediate recall. 

2^ Kuhlmann, F. (On the analysis of the memory consciousness, Psy- 
chol. Rev., 13, 1906, 316-348) reports that the schema of localization 
generally precedes the recalling of the material. 

-^ Miiller {Zur Analyse der Gcddchtnistatigkcit und dcs Vorstellungs- 
verlaiifcs, Zsch. f. Psych., Ergbd. V., 1911, xiv+403) emphasized the 
importance of rhythm, especially in the first stages of the learning. 
Miiller and Schumann (op. cit.) also found that rhythm was a very 
important factor in learning inasmuch as the syllables which had once 
formed a part of a metrical foot tended to be associated more closely 
than syllables not bound together in this way. 



276 O'BRIEN 

The O is apt to be uncertain in recall when a word is recalled 
with difficulty.^"^ Two or more of the following factors, listed in 
order of their importance, usually constitute this consciousness of 
uncertainty. (1) The first syllable in an associated pair keeps re- 
peating itself; even after the recall of the second syllable the first 
continues to recur in consciousness. (2) Images of the two syllables 
alternate or rival in consciousness. (3) A word fluctuates in its posi- 
tion in the schema of localization. There is (4) hesitancy in vocaliza- 
tion, (5) a questioning intonation in vocalization, (6) an unpleasant 
affective tone. 

If in the learning an O forms a group which is recalled in motor 
terms, a motor trend sometimes appears as an aid in recall : as soon 
as a learner vocalizes one word of a group he ' finds ' his vocal ap- 
paratus automatically set to say the next word. The group thus 
becomes a ' motor unit ' which runs its course automatically once it 
is initiated. 

In anticipating and recalling the words of a series, the visual 
imagery of a word may appear (1) typewritten, (2) in the O's own 
handwriting, or (3) in a form that can not be recognized as any 
specific writing or printing. There is no conclusive evidence that 
explains the occurrence of one of these forms rather than another. 
Most of the visual imagery is of the typewritten form and is derived 
doubtless from the presented material. It is when the O is required 
to write the words in the learning or in the recall that he has many 
visual images of his own handwriting. Especially does he seem to 
visualize his handwriting if he has a characteristic way of forming 
certain letters. 

The O of visual type, when presented with material in either audi- 
tory or visual fashion, always recalls in visual imagery. ^i The O 
of motor type, when presented with material in visual or auditory 
fashion, almost always recalls in vocimotor imagery. It appears, there- 
fore, that, regardless of mode of presentation, an O recalls material 
predominantly in imagery of his own type, although supplemented at 
times by the imagery corresponding to the mode of presentation. Cer- 
tainly the mode of presentation is in no way indicative of the modality 
of imagery that an O will employ in recalling that material. 

When material is recalled with difficulty, the imagery may first 
appear in the O's own type, and then be completed by imagery corre- 
sponding to the imagery of the mode of presentation ; or the difficult 
word may first appear incomplete and unclear in the imagery of the 
mode of presentation, and then be completed by the imagery of the 
learner's type. Observers of all types in recalling in auditory terms a 
material presented auditorily by E usually have imagery of their own 

^•^ Kuhlmann {op. cit.) and von Wartensleben (Ueber den Einfluss 
der Zwischenzeit auf die Reproduktion gelesener Buchstaben, Zsch. 
f. Psychol., 64, 1913, 321-385) found subjective uncertainty when there 
was rivalry betweea two images for the center of consciousness. Meyer 
{op. cit.) found that the greater the lack of subjective assurance the 
longer the reaction-time, and that indefinite localization conditioned 
subjective uncertainty. 

^1 Abbott {op. cit.) points out that a visual image is invariably sub- 
stituted at once for the heard letters. Frankfurther and Thiele, Meu- 
mann and many other investigators have shown that the image of the 
reproduced word is primarily determined in the ideational type of the 
learner, and is influenced only secondarily by the mode of presentation. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 277 

voices rather than of £'s. Occasionally, however, if E pronounces a 
word in a manner which seems odd to the O, the recall appears in 
auditory imagery of £'s voice. 

In no instance, either in learning or in recall, did any O report the 
presence of a manumotor image. ^2 It has been assumed that learning 
is more efficient if the material to be acquired is written during the 
act of learning, especially when the material is dictated to the learner 
as it may be in learning to spell. In the light of our data it appears 
that the writing-movement, the motor sensations per sc, do not help 
at all in the learning.^^ The help comes rather from the O's seeing 
what he has written, and it is this visual percept only that helps the 
learner. The act of writing is important and necessary because it 
makes possible this visual percept and because attention is thus retained 
longer upon the word than is the case when the word is written 
by another person. 

If the series is difficult to learn and the O requires a great number 
of presentations to learn it, the delayed recall is apt to be relatively 
poor. This situation arises because successive presentations yield 
diminishing returns. In most of the later presentations the O passes 
over the words which he has already anticipated; he assumes that they 
are learned and tries neither to perceive them clearly nor to anticipate 
them. Thus the later presentations do little to strengthen the asso' 
ciations of many of the words, which after a time pass below the asso- 
ciative threshold as readily as if the final presentations had not been 
made. 

Meumann's rule is that the greater the number of presentations, the 
greater the strength of the association, everything else being equal. 
But in no series unfortunately are all things equal. Even nonsense 
syllables are of unequal difficulty, and the various positions within 
the presented series are variously favorable. Hence in learning a 
series it is inevitably true that some parts are learned first and that 
the final presentations are of greatly diminished value in the further 
impression of these parts. 

32 One observer, T, Am, reported with great uncertainty what he 
thought was a manumotor image, but at no other time was a manu- 
motor image reported by any 0. 

^^ Smith, T. L. (On muscular memory, Amer. J. Psychol., 7, 1896, 
453-490) found that errors in recall were reduced 16% by allowing the 
learner to write the letters; but his subjects were deaf mutes and 
employed the deaf-mute alphabet. The nature of this material lends 
itself more readily to motor reproduction than does printed or spoken 
language. Lay (op. cit.) concluded that the writing per se is an aid 
to learning; Fuchs and Haggenmiiller and Itschner (op p. citt.), who 
obtained results similar to Lay's, explained their findings differently. 
Fuchs and Haggenmiiller pointed out that the material is seen twice 
when it is written, once when it is presented and a second time after 
being written. Itschner calls attention to the fact that the presenta- 
tion-time is longer for the series when the O's write the words and 
that writing the words destroys an illusion that the material is 
learned, which occurs prematurely in visual presentation. 

R. Dodge (Die motorischen WortvorstcUungen, 1896, 78 pp.), al- 
though of extreme motor type, never had a manumotor image. 



278 O'BRIEN 

Objective Data 

In securing the objective data we arbitrarily determined to 
make the following deductions for each of the possible errors 
in recall. The deductions are in arbitrary units based on 
the assumption that perfect recall involves 1,440 units. 



Three-letter Four-letter 

syllables words 

For a wrong letter 32 24 

For an omitted letter 24 18 

For a misplaced letter 16 12 

For each letter of an unplaced word 8 6 

For each letter of an interchanged word. 4 3 

For an interchanged letter 4 3 



The deductions were determined in the following manner. 
The correct recall of a single letter was assumed to count 6 
points, and its omission in recall to necessitate a deduction 
of 6 points from the maximal score. For giving a wrong 
letter 8 points were deducted, since it is a greater error to 
give a wrong letter than to give none at all ; in this case not 
only is the correct letter forgotten, but the lacuna is also 
filled in by false data. Since, when a wrong letter is given, 
more than the total value of a letter is deducted (8/6), it is 
theoretically possible to obtain a negative score if more than 
three-fourths (6/8) is positively wrong in recall. Such a 
situation, however, if it occurred, would indicate a positive 
tendency for mislearning and not merely a failure to learn, 
and should properly be represented by a negative value. For 
each letter of a misplaced word or syllable, 4 points were to 
be deducted; for each letter of an unplaced (unlocalized within 
the series) word or syllable, 2 points; for each letter of inter- 
changed words, 2 points. In the foregoing table of deductions 
these points have been multiplied by 4 for three-letter non- 
sense-syllables and by 3 for the four-letter meaningful words, 
in order that the total values of the two materials might be 
the same. Thus the score-value of 60 three-letter syllables is 
60X'3X4=1440 ; and the score-value of 60 four-letter words 
is 60X4X3^1440. The 1440 units represent perfect recall ; 
deductions are made from 1440 in accordance with the fore- 
going table, and the remainder is expressed as a percentage 
of perfect recall (1440 points). 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 279 



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280 O'BRIEN 

Table I shows that there is no one mode of presentation 
which is the best for all O's. Visual-vocimotor presentation, 
VM, is the most efficient in 7 cases : it is second in efficiency 
once, fifth once, ninth once, and last once. Nor is the same 
mode of presentation best for the same with different ma- 
terials. W, for example, finds visual-vocimotor presentation, 
VM, the most efficient mode in learning meaningful words, 
whereas it is only eighth best for him in the learning of non- 
sense material. 

TABLE II 

Average Efficiency for Each Mode of Presentation as Measured by 

Average Number of Presentations Required for Learning; 

All Observers. V = Visual, A = Auditory, M = Voci- 

motor, m = Manumotor. Last Column Arranged 

IN Order of Efficiency with Least Efficient 

Mode at the Top 

Order of Mode Meaningful Nonsense Average 

Presentation Presentation Words Syllables Two Materials 



7 


Am 


5.90 


7.83 


6.87 


3 


VA 


8.10 


5.58 


6.84 


10 


AMm 


7.80 


5.92 


6.86 


2 


A 


6.00 


7.33 


6.67 


11 


VMm 


9.10 


4.17 


6.64 


8 


VAM 


7.00 


5.83 


6.42 


5 


Vm 


4.80 


7.58 


6.19 


6 


AM 


7.20 


5.00 


6.10 


12 


VAMm 


4.00 


6.90 


5.85 


1 


V 


5.90 


5.25 


5.58 


4 


VM 


3.40 


3.42 


3.41 


9 


VAm 


8.00 







Table II again shows that the combined visual-vocimotor 
mode of presentation is by far the most efficient. The amount 
of variation between the other modes of presentation is so 
slight that no significant differences are apparent. 

These objective data do not properly afford an answer to 
the problem of the most efficient mode of learning, because 
in the first place the determinations are too few to allow of a 
significant statistical treatment, and because the general aver- 
ages fail to take account of the imaginal type of the O's. If 
statistics are to tell the true story, an average must represent 
not a single mode of presentation but a single mode of learn- 
ing. The learning-process must be introspectively controlled 
or at least viewed in the light of the previously determined 
type of the learner, and averages must be found for similar 
modes of learning, even though they occur with dissimilar 
modes of presentation. 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 281 

Summary and Conclusions 

1. The process of learning consists of three distinct stages: 
(a) the orienting stage (pp. 269 if.) ; {b) the stage of at- 
tempted anticipation (pp. 271 f.) ; and (c) the anticipatory 
stage (pp. 272 ff.). 

2. All of our O's found it necessary to employ vocimotor 
imagery in learning a series of meaningful words or nonsense- 
syllables ; no was able to learn a series of words or nonsense- 
syllables if he succeeded under instruction in inhibiting voci- 
motor imagery from the start. The O's of visual type in 
most cases did not employ vocimotor imagery after the first 
few presentations of the material in the learning, but the 
vocimotor imagery was present during the initial presentations 
and did not lapse until the visual imagery had become clear 
and definite. The O's of the motor type are never able to 
inhibit vocimotor imagery and yet learn the material. 

3. If the is instructed not to use vocimotor imagery 
during learning he responds (a) by attempting actively to 
inhibit vocimotor imagery, thus interfering with or prevent- 
ing learning, or (b) by setting up for himself ? new Aufgabc 
to use imagery of another modality {e.g., visual imagery). 

4. The O in learning usually groups the words or syllables ; 
and the number of words or syllables which constitute a 
group depends upon (a) the time intervening between the 
presentation of two successive words, {b) the immediate 
memory-span of the O, (c) the meaningful associations be- 
tween the words or syllables, {d) the presence of an Aufgabe 
for grouping that the learner himself may set up, and {e) 
the position of difficult words within the series. 

5. Manumotor imagery does not aid either the learning or 
the recall. When the material to be learned is presented to 
the in auditory fashion, the learning is in most cases more 
efficient if the O is required to write the material than if he 
does not write it ; and the increased efficiency occurs especially 
when the materials are isolated words or syllables or when 
auditory perception is less definite than visual perception. In 
these cases the O must decide upon a definite spelling in order 
to write the word pronounced to him, and the writing thus 
definitizes the perception. The advantage of writing, there- 
fore, comes not from manumotor processes but from the 
visual percept of the written word. 

6. The mode of presentation is in no way indicative of the 
modality of imagery that an O will employ in learning or 



282 0*BRIEN 

recalling a series of words or syllables. The modality of the 
imagery which a learner employs is determined primarily by 
his ideational type and only secondarily by the mode of pres- 
entation. 

7. All O's find it difficult to obtain a definite auditory per- 
ception of some syllables, especially those syllables containing 
the letters c, q, k; d, t; etc. 

8. The recall of difficult words or syllables is in most cases 
preceded by the appearance in consciousness of a schema in 
one of three types: (a) visual schema (p. 275), (&) kinaes- 
thetic schema (p. 275), (c) rhythmic schema (pp. 263, 275). 

9. In addition to the words themselves and their associa- 
tions there may occur as an aid a ' motor trend.' This * motor 
trend ' is present in the acts of anticipation but more fre- 
quently in the recalls. 

10. Extraneous associations with the words to be learned 
are formed by all the O's. There seems to be no well-defined 
chronological order in which the words and these associa- 
tions appear in recall. The word appears sometimes in the 
imagery corresponding to the learner's ideational type and 
sometimes in the imagery corresponding to the mode of pres- 
entation ; and the association similarly may come either in 
the imagery of the learner's ideational type or of the mode of 
presentation. 

11. Words which have these extraneous associations are in 
most instances retained better than words not thus associated. 

12. The first two or three and the last two or three words 
of a series are the first words of the series to be learned. 

13. Visual imagery is not efficient for a rapid anticipation 
and usually gives way to vocimotor imagery when rapid an- 
ticipation is acquired. 

14. In visual-auditory presentation the learner seldom at- 
tends equally to both the auditory and the visual aspects of 
the presentation. He attends usually almost wholly to the 
one _or to the other according to his ideational type. 

15. The recall of a series is sometimes accompanied by sub- 
jective assurance and sometimes by subjective non-assurance. 

16. The statistical data obtained in this study are significant 
in scarcely a single instance for the reason that, although the 
objective conditions were kept constant in accordance with 
the rules for such investigations, the subjective factors could 



QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION OF PROCESS OF LEARNING 283 

not be brought under control. At best mere objective data 
will do little more than indicate the most efficient mode of 
presentation for a particular O, until account is taken of the 
ideational type of the O's, the attentive selection that they 
exercise among the various presentative aspects of a material, 
and the manner in which one sensory mode is subject to 
translation into another. Some introspective procedure is a 
necessity. 



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